Yoga: Attainment of Ultimate Reality and Meaning
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Popularly, the term yoga evokes images of bodily postures in physical exercise. Contrary to this notion, yoga is a serious system of contemplation with an integrated approach towards objective and transcendental knowledge. Yoga is a Sanskrit word, which is derived from the root yuj, meaning ‘to join’ (Taimni 1961, p.7). Its purpose is first to unite the contemplator with the objective reality of the object of contemplation and then to enable unity with the realm transcending objectivity.
Yogic process begins with consciously stilling the mind to free it of its usual disturbances and fleetingness in order to develop an incisive focus of intellect to enable uninterrupted contemplation of one
object. Eventually, even this one object fades and disappears from consciousness, which is left completely free of ordinary activity. The contemplator must want passionately to know the object of contemplation, or the effort needed for the contemplative union will not be possible. Any object of contemplation can enable the transcendence of objectivity, if the contemplative effort is uninterrupted.
The totality of the universe is the most intriguing object, the contemplation of which unites the contemplator with the ultimate reality of the universe. In this sense yoga is a discipline of union with the absolute. The essence of self of an individual is an equally intriguing object of contemplation and it unites the contemplator with the reality of the self. In this sense yoga is a discipline of union with the self. Since an individual is a part of the universe, yoga is a discipline of union of the self with the universe through the absolute. In practical terms, the attainment of this union of the self with the universe is the supreme goal of yoga - the highest achievement possible for a contemplator. This achievement is said to transform the mind permanently from ordinary finitude and limitations to extraordinary potential and boundless love.
The secret lies in the process of cognition. The sublimation of this process through mental and physical discipline to sustain undisturbed incisive focus on one object leads to a succession of stages that can roughly be described as follows:
1. A state of unawareness of everything except the object and the mind itself results in subjective knowledge of the object;
2. The awareness of mind recedes from consciousness in which the object exists alone in a state resulting in objective knowledge stripped of all subjectivity;
3. Even the object recedes resulting in a transcendental state of intuition and revelation.
Since yoga is considered to be the practical side of a theoretical system enunciated by Samkhya (Talwar 2001), its prior knowledge may help in developing an understanding of the yogic thought, which seems to prescribes a discipline implementing the Samkhya model of human development. Yogic thought, being vedic in origin, existed much before the time of sage Patanjali, who lived sometime between the second century B.C. and the fifth century A.D. (Hiriyanna 1993, p. 270), and who is considered to have systematized it in the form of sutras (aphorisms). Although the general purpose of yoga is to unite the contemplator with the object of contemplation, the scope of this article encompasses those sutras of Patanjali, which in the opinion of the author explicitly focus on it as a general science of discovery of reality, both immediate and ultimate.
2.1 Chitta – The Internal Organ
The subtle body of Samkhya activated by purusha (consciousness principle) in yogic terms is known as chitta or the internal organ (Talwar 2001). In this article, the word mind is sometimes used synonymously. Chitta ‘may be considered as a universal medium through which consciousness functions on all planes of the manifested universe’ (Taimni 1961, p.7).
Chitta may also be visualized to comprise a nucleus consisting of the activator purusha enclosed by layers of the subtle products of evolution of prakriti (natural principle). The innermost layer of such a model is buddhi (thinking principle), followed by ahamkara (apparent self or personality), and finally by mana (controller of senses and connection with sense objects) (Talwar 2001). Viewed from the outside, this model presents chitta as comprised of the products of evolution of prakriti, while its real essence lies in purusha, its activator.
There are two associated principles in chitta – prakriti characterized by change, materiality and predictability through laws of natural sciences; and purusha characterized by constancy, consciousness, free will, and life. Manifestation of consciousness through the material principles of chitta wholly depends upon the state of the associated material principle.
2.2 Transformations of Chitta
Ordinarily, thought is the mode of existence of chitta. The object of this section is to examine the changes that may take place in its material principle as it transforms under various forces that act on it.
Perhaps the best way to describe this kind of transformation is through the use of an analogy with a radio tuner. The process of tuning involves causing the tuner material to oscillate in harmony with the broadcast of the station being tuned. This tuning process involves a modal transformation of the tuning material.
The material principle of chitta undergoes a similar process when it is tuning in to a particular thought wave. The thought wave may be associated with one of the previous impressions, a sensual contact with an object resulting in a new experience, or a natural instinct of the body. The change that the material principle of chitta undergoes while connecting with a thought is called its modal transformation. Sensual contact with an object is said to color the material principle of the chitta, which may also be thought of as its modal transformation. Connecting with another thought or object is yet another modal transformation. The life span of a particular mode is [lasts] only until it is replaced by another mode.
Flippant as chitta ordinarily is, it always seems to undergo one modal transformation after another and exists in states that are being modified continuously. Modes or modifications seem to be the natural way of existence of chitta. Modes or modifications of the mind are called chitta-vrittis - vrittis of chitta. The word vritti is derived from the root vrit meaning ‘to exist’. Thus, chitta-vrittis are ways of existence of chitta.
Patanjali uses two types of classifications for chitta-vrittis, one according to the nature of sensations produced and the other according to the nature of the thought produced in our minds (Taimni 1961, p.12). According to the former classification, chitta-vrittis are of two types – painful and not painful. According to the latter classification, there are five types of chitta-vrittis:
2.2.1.1 Pramanda – Right Knowledge
Pramanda is that type of content of mind, which is based on the reality of the underlying facts. In this mode of chitta, there is a complete correspondence between an object and its mental image.
2.2.1.2 Viparya – Contrary Knowledge
Viparya is that type of content of mind, which is contrary to any reality of underlying facts. In this mode, there is contrary correspondence between an object and its understanding.
2.2.1.3 Vikalpa – Imagination
Imagination is a word image only without any underlying object. Objectivity is of no consequence when mind is involved in fanciful imaginations.
2.2.1.4 Nidra – Sleep
In this mode, the mind is functioning but is idle and without content. This mode is associated with lack of consciousness of the mental content.
2.2.1.5 Smriti – Memory
Memory consists of the impressions left in the mind by previously experienced objects.
2.2.2 State Transitions
State transitions of physical objects occur rather quickly in the presence of conditions conducive to the transition. For example, when water is heated to its boiling temperature, it begins to boil and further heat produces steam. Steam condenses into water when it cools. The new state persists as long as conditions persist to maintain it. Similarly, material principles of mind undergo temporary state transitions under the influence of environmental changes. An example of such a change is found in the influence of company on an individual’s mind.
Certain conditions can cause transmutations of the material principles of the mind. These transformations are not temporary but of a lasting duration.
An object of a certain class in nature has potentialities of mutating into an object of various other classes. Actualization of a potential metamorphosis requires a particular set of conditions to be met. This law of natural evolution applies to the material principles of chitta as well. It must be understood that the fulfillment of the natural conditions required for a certain transmutation is not the material cause of the change, but only the incidental cause. The material cause is in the form of the potentiality inherent in the object. Characteristics resulting from metamorphic transmutations of the material principles of chitta are called siddhis, the attainments. According to Patanjali, siddhis result from transmutations due to five incidental causes:
A fundamental change occurs at birth, which results in the current content of memory being converted from a conscious to an unconscious state. Yoga terms these latent memory contents as samskaras. Ordinarily, we call them natural instincts.
It is well known that certain drugs and chemicals can react with the material principles of chitta to alter their states on a temporary or permanent basis.
Yoga theory postulates that suitable repetition of certain mantras can transform human minds enabling capabilities that can be classified as siddhis.
Self imposed austerities including fasting when practiced for a long time in a disciplined manner can cause unexplainable mental capabilities. Near death experiences, traumatic experiences like severe accidents and illnesses are known to leave people in altered states of mind.
This is the most recommended method for use by those individuals who are interested in transforming their states of mind with a view to self-development. This method is completely under the control of an individual’s personal will. The literal meaning of the word samadhi is balanced intellect. The term refers to a certain internal and external balance one achieves as a result of the application of willful and undisturbed contemplative effort. It must be emphasized that one maintains the stage of samadhi for a definite time period only. Since samadhi is an important yogic attainment, it will be treated extensively later in the article.
2.2.4 Characteristics of Mutant Minds
Transmutations resulting from the four aforementioned causes have one characteristic in common: asmita. Asmita is the principle of finitude and individuality, which ordinarily lies at the very core of our being and makes us behave in ways centered on our limited existence. Only those transmutations that result from samadhi lack the centrality of finitude and individuality.
Ordinary minds are rooted in asmita and their actions leave their effects on the mind in the form of unconscious tendencies or inclinations called samskaras, which lead to subtle desires called vasanas. In the case of those minds that are not rooted in asmita but in the infinity and unity of ultimate reality, actions do not leave their effects. Such are the minds of yogis.
In all, actions are of four kinds: black, white, mixed black and white, and neither black nor white. Of these, only the last relates to minds devoid of asmita. Actions of those rooted in asmita are black, white or mixed black and white. Black deeds are evil deeds that are intended to hurt others and white deeds are good and virtuous deeds that are intended to help others. Actions for self-development are also white. Mixed deeds are those that are neither wholly black nor wholly white. These are acts of ordinary men that help some and hurt others. All of these three types of actions are within the scope of the law of karma : cause and effect.
Actions of those who have achieved the supreme goal of yoga are rooted in the infinity of ultimate reality and transcend classification as good, bad or mixed. Such actions can only be classified as neither black nor white. These actions are outside the scope of the law of karma.
2.2.5 Law of Karma – Cause and Effect
The law of karma applies to those actions that are rooted in asmita. The law of karma is the natural law of cause and effect, which applies to everything in the domain of nature. In the case of actions, their effect is the memory of the consequent sensation of pleasure or pain. If the sensation is pleasure, the memory is good; otherwise, bad. Respective memory leaves a tendency called samskara on the mind to repeat or avoid the action. Samskaras lead to subtle desires called vasanas, which turn into active desires when time and circumstance permit.
One’s inbuilt tendencies or samskaras are one’s potential energy. Out of the collection of one’s tendencies, one manifests those tendencies for which the conditions are right. The others lie dormant until an opportunity presents itself.
Samskaras do not respect any limitations of time or space, or recognize any specific mutation of the mind. As long as asmita is present at the root of the mind, samskaras are present. In other words, they are ever present with one whether one lives or dies and are reborn as long as one’s mind is rooted in asmita. Samskaras are of the same nature as memory. They may dim with time, but they are never lost as long as they are fed with asmita.
The collection of samskaras start from the beginning of time since the will to live and live well is eternal. It begins when we begin, at the beginning of time, and life continues in one form or the other until the end of time. It keeps us acting for self-protection, our good and our well being, and for accumulating samskaras. This process can go on forever until we want to break it by willfully detaching ourselves from the principle of finitude and individuality called asmita.
2.3.1 Root Causes
Chitta being the essence of an individual, its condition determines the human condition. Klesas are determinants of the human condition, and they are five in number:
2.3.1.1 Avidya – Lack of Understanding of Reality
Avidya is the lack of awareness that the entire universe is a mere manifestation of one ultimate reality. It is the underlying cause of the other four klesas, which may lie in latent and dormant, weak and attenuated, scattered and alternating, or fully operative states from time to time. In the dormant state, a klesa may be present in its potential waiting to actualize. In the attenuated state, its strength is under control. In the alternative state, it comes and goes and in the fully operative state, its presence is all too apparent. The states of klesas depend upon the prevailing conditions and opportunities from time to time.
Avidya is defined as the misappropriation of the nature of purusha to that of prakriti. Purusha is eternal, unchangeable, and enabling consciousness. On the other hand, prakriti is non-eternal, changeable, and lacking consciousness although it acts as a tool of consciousness. Avidya is the attribution of nature of purusha to prakriti. Avidya occurs naturally. It is not a deliberate human creation.
2.3.1.2 Asmita – The I-sense
Literally asmita is a noun from the root asmi , meaning ‘I am’. Asmita, then, means the feeling of I-am-ness, the principle of individuality that enables us to identify ourselves as apart from others. Identification with nature causes asmita.
Asmita results from avidya. The reason for the feeling of asmita is the close working relationship of purusha and the material principles of chitta - buddhi, ahamkara, and mana; which we regard as the essence of our being instead of purusha. We all know that electrical energy powers machines used as tools to make parts, yet it is easy to think that machines make parts.
Asmita could be understood as assertion by buddhi and its adjuncts or by physical body made up of five gross elements as the essence of being, whereas there is no existence without purusha. The assertion of buddhi as the essence of being is asmita at the subtlest level and the assertion of physical body as the essence of being is asmita at the gross level.
2.3.1.3 Raga – Attachment
Raga, or attachment is the result of the feeling of pleasure. It is the attraction towards an object that pleases one, or has pleased one previously. It is a result of asmita as a consequence of misplaced emphasis on objects of prakriti as the essence of our being. A simple feeling of pleasure in an object leads to a keen delight in thinking about it, desire and pride of possession, covetousness, greed, gluttony, and lust.
2.3.1.4 Dvesa – Aversion
Natural feeling of aversion, resentment, loathing and revulsion towards an unpleasant object which one imagines to be upsetting, or which has upset one previously is called dvesa, or aversion. Being the opposite of attachment, it, too, is a result of asmita.
2.3.1.5 Abhinivesa – Fear of Death
Fear of death resulting from strong desire to live is abhivinesa. This feeling is automatic and universal. Since it is the immediate result of attachment to life, the greater the play of attractions and aversions in life, the greater would be intensity of fear of losing life. Old age undermines the play of attractions and revulsions with consequent loss of will to live.
Fear of death and strong desire for life both interfere with living and make one die manytimes in one lifetime.
Klesas are the determinants of human condition, but they are not limited to humans alone. All beings are born with them. In fact, they are the root cause of all activity in nature. The survival instinct being universal, abhinivesa or fear of death is universal. Raga, attachment to things or conditions that are agreeable, and dvesa, aversion from those that are disagreeable are also universal. The other two klesas, namely asmita and avidya are subtle causes of the former three manifestations.
2.3.3 Reservoir of Impressions
Klesas are the cause of the reservoir of karma, the impressions left by human activity. Klesas underlie all our thoughts and desires that motivate us to act in accordance with our prior samskaras or conditioning and determine our future conditioning. Samskaras are compared with the fruit of the tree with klesas as the root. As long as klesas are present, its fruit, the samskaras or impressions left by the experience of actions are also present. The experiences of current incarnation are like the fruit of seeds sown earlier. They are joyous or sorrowful depending upon the underlying prior actions.
Our actions are like assets and liabilities. Those that are assets are good and virtuous in nature and result in happiness and joy. Those that are liabilities are bad and evil in nature and produce unhappiness and sorrow. Why not, then, continue to perform virtuous deeds and consequently live happily ever after? Yoga says that this is not possible for various reasons.
The ideal of everlasting happiness is not achievable. Change is a matter of rule in this world of prakriti, and every change has some effects. Coping with the incessant onslaught of change is difficult. Being unpredictable, change is accompanied with anxiety, tension and suffering. We get baffled and confused, and lose our sense of good and bad. Change brings in its wake adversity, poverty, divorce, old age, disease, and death and it is impossible to keep your sense of values under intolerable conditions. We plunge even more violently into worldly activity of all sorts in order to keep our sanity, which further strengthens the hold of impressions. In addition, dominant attributes of the material principles of chitta determine one’s inner nature. However, inundations of opposite inclinations cause conflicts and contrary behavior with subsequent guilt. Repeated conflicts are exhausting and drain the will to be virtuous and good.
According to yoga philosophy, future unhappiness, suffering and misery are definitely avoidable. Yoga differs from traditional religion in the prescription for avoiding unhappiness. Traditional religion prescribes virtuous living for future happiness. Yoga prescribes the uprooting of klesas as the remedy for avoiding unhappiness forever. Although the uprooting of klesas appears like swimming against the natural ebb and tide, yoga philosophy claims that it is possible to do so. One can only reduce future unhappiness and suffering to the extent to which one is successful in controlling and uprooting of klesas.
2.3.5.1 The Seer and the Seen
The problem begins with the association of the seer and the seen in chitta. The seer is purusha, pure consciousness and the enabler of cognition. The seen extends to the entire domain of subtle and gross products of evolution of prakriti. In chitta, the seer and the seen are closely associated. Purusha sees by perceiving objects reflected in the material principle of chitta, which acts as the tool of cognition.
2.3.5.2 The Primacy Question
The association of the seer and the seen in chitta raises the question: which, of purusha and prakriti, is prime. According to yoga philosophy in their role in chitta, the enabler of consciousness purusha, assumes the prime position over the tool of cognition prakriti. The seer is prime and the purpose of the seen is to serve the purpose of the seer in two ways – to involve the seer in experiencing the seen or bhoga, and to provide for it to free itself from indulgence in this experience or apavarga (Talwar 2001). Chitta may be a storehouse of all kinds of desires and inclinations, but all those are for the sake and use of purusha; the material principle of chitta being inanimate by itself has no independent use of them. The sole purpose of the world of objects, including chitta , is to serve the needs of purusha.
2.3.5.3 Viveka – The Enlightened Perspective
Indulgence in experiencing the world of the seen satisfies an ordinary value system. But a fulfilled person does not need to continue indulgence, which ceases to be of any real value anymore when a person has realized the relative positions of prakriti and purusha. Such a person uses the experience of the seen for the purpose of rising above mere indulgence leading to complete emancipation from the human condition. Such a person begins to understand and realize the true nature of purusha as well as prakriti, and their respective powers begin to unfold for this person. This person then is able to develop viveka, an enlightened perspective for both purusha and prakriti, and realizes that the purpose of association of purusha and prakriti is not merely to indulge in experience but also to develop a sense of freedom from indulgence. This perspective then becomes the tool for the uprooting of klesas that underlie the ordinary human condition. Lack of awareness of the true natures of purusha and prakriti is avidya.
2.3.5.4 Kaivalya – Realization underlying Viveka
Development of due perspective for seer and seen leads to the realization of each one individually disassociated from the other without avidya arising out of their association. Yoga philosophy calls the state of such contemplative realization in samadhi, kaivalya. In this state, the contemplator loses all duality and sees the seer in all that is seen and all that is seen in the seer. This realization is the means of avoidance of avidya, the root cause of all klesas. When avidya disappears, the effect of klesas disappears. With the disappearance of klesas, their effect of unhappiness disappears as well.
Yoga philosophy prescribes a systematic approach in order to arrive at this realization. Klesas ought to be attenuated first to a passive state with the help of practices such as austere lifestyle, surrender to God, and self-study in preparation for their subtilization, since the passive state of klesas is merely a state of temporary quiescence. Meditation reduces klesas from a quiescent passive state to a subtle state the reversal of which is still possible but less probable (Tirath 1974, pp. 304-5). If a fully active state is compared with a tree in full bloom in spring, its passive state is comparable to its dormant state in winter and its subtle state to the seed form. A seed can still grow to a full and mature blooming tree although the process is longer than just changing the season from winter to spring. Even the subtle state of klesas can be dangerous. The seed of klesas, namely avidya, must be burnt, lest it should start growing again (Tirath 1974, pp. 303-4). Only the state of kaivalya resulting from continuous practice of advanced stages of samadhi is capable of destroying the very seed of klesas. After an experience of this state, one has permanently captured klesas. Since klesas are at the root of the human condition, their capture can be described as the transcendence of the human condition and the permanent cessation of unhappiness and suffering.
2.4 Yoga Epistemology
According to Samkhya (Talwar 2001), the whole universe springs forth from one ultimate reality and dissolves back into it. If this is so, why is there so much diversity? Objects are different because they have a variety of different dharmas (natures). Yoga explains this difference in natures as the variety of evolutionary paths traversed by different objects. Because of the variety of different paths, different evolutionary forces shape and condition various objects differently. Different courses of evolution result from the existence of free will to varying extents in different objects. The extent of free will depends upon the state of evolution of the object that determines the extent to which the light of purusha can shine through the buddhi and ahamkara to guide the mana that controls the cognitive and active senses. Humans, being the most evolved of all species, generally exhibit free will to the highest extent. Free will interferes with the natural course of evolution, causes unpredictability in its path and makes it rather circuitous and diverse.
Two human beings have vastly different natures because of the difference in their conditioning, which results from differences in accumulated experience. Experience accumulates as we traverse different paths of evolution from single cell amoeba through different lives to our current human state. Part of this journey is predetermined by the natural course of evolution and partly by the exercise of free will. Past experience conditions and determines the present, which in turn determines the reality to be faced in the future by each and every worldly object, whether it be animate or inanimate.
The nature or dharma of different objects, whether manifest or dormant, is determined by a unique combination of the three basic gunas (attributes) that constitute prakriti (Talwar 2001). Manifest nature indicates that group of properties which can be found in action in an object. Dormant nature indicates that group of properties which is waiting to be manifest. It points to the potential which has not yet been actualized.
The essential nature of an object results from the uniqueness of the way in which the three basic gunas of prakriti combine themselves in the object. A unique combination of the three gunas results in a unique group of properties and a unique identity for every object. There is an infinite number of possible ways in which the three gunas can combine, resulting in an infinite number of existing and potential objects.
2.4.4 Subjectivity of perception
Here a question arises. If every object has its own unique identity, why do different minds perceive the same object differently? The answer lies in the difference in the perceiving minds resulting from the different paths they have traversed in the past. Cognition of an object by a mind does not depend upon the object alone. It depends upon the mind as well. Accumulated experience modifies the impression that an object makes on a mind. For a mind to have total objectivity, that is to perceive an object as the object really is, it either should have no prior experience or it must rid itself of all effects of the prior experience. Only a calm, collected and dispassionate mind can be objective and that also to the extent one is able to still the mind and focus on the object.
Objects are real in their own right. One may be tempted to discount the reality of the objects because ordinarily each mind perceives an object differently. What happens if a particular mind is incapable of perceiving an object at all? Does the object disappear completely? Or does it disappear only as far as that mind is concerned? Yoga philosophy fully accepts independent objective reality. Existence of a subjective and personal idealistic world does not preclude the existence of a real world outside which may be totally different.
An object is known by the way it modifies the chitta, mind. If the object does not modify the mind, it is not known at all. Coloring or modification of the mind in some way or form is a necessary requirement for the object to be known. This coloring of the mind may be understood as the capacity of the mind to vibrate in harmony with the stimulus provided by the object. The nature of this vibration is stored in memory for future tuning in the process of recall in the absence of sensual contact with the object.
Purusha does not change as a result of the process of knowing or perceiving. It is the principle that enables all mental functions. It witnesses all colorings or modifications of the mind caused by objects. This witnessing by purusha of the modification of the mind by an object causes an awareness of the object. Perception cannot take place in the absence of either the modification of the mind by the object or witnessing by purusha of this modification.
The witnessing by purusha may be compared to a coloring of the mental material by purusha in addition to the coloring by the object. This simultaneous coloring of the mind by the perceived (object) and the perceiver (purusha) results in cognition. Perception of an object may be understood as a two-stage process – in the first stage, the object to be perceived must color the mind, and in the second stage, the mind must be colored by the consciousness of purusha.
2.4.7 Role of Purusha in Cognition
The mental material is not capable of perceiving by itself. According to ordinary experience of self-consciousness, the mind itself can be perceived. Because the mental material cannot be both the perceiver and an object of perception at the same time, we can conclude that mind-stuff needs the assistance of purusha in perception. Without this assistance, the mind cannot perceive. This recognition leads to the mind being called the instrument of perception and purusha, the real perceiver.
In self-consciousness, the positions of the perceiver and the perceived are like the opposite ends of a stick. The mind by itself cannot simultaneously take both of these positions. If the mind is the object of perception, then the subject in the process of perception must be different. This subject in perception, this perceiver, is purusha. Assuming the existence of another, subtler mind that perceives the mind being perceived in the process of self-consciousness, instead of postulating the existence of purusha, would simply lead to the absurdity of an endless series of sequentially subtler minds capable of perceiving those that are denser and being perceived by those minds that are subtler.
2.4.8 Validation
The understanding resulting from the cognitive processes of yoga are to be verified by direct sensual perception, inferential reasoning, or pre-existing authoritative testimonial knowledge. Direct sensual perception is the best method of validation, but many complex objects are beyond the reach of senses even when aided by state of the art technological instrumentation. In that case, according to yoga philosophy we are obligated to use one or both of the remaining tools.
The reach of inferential reasoning must be extended with the use of applicable disciplines such as logic or mathematics. Reasoning also has its limitations. It may not be sufficient for some objects of yogic investigation. The only other validation tool left for such objects is the testimony of experts with authority in the field of investigation. Published literature, conferences, or consultations provide the means to use the tool of testimony in validating new discoveries.
Yoga philosophy cautions against accepting any discovery, no matter how it is made, if it does not rigorously pass the tests of sensory perception, inferential reasoning and published testimony of other experts. Thus, in the matter of rigor of validation, it is no different from the modern method of scientific discovery.
2.4.9 Self-cognition of Purusha
When no external or internal object whatsoever is coloring the mind, the mental material is colored by purusha alone. In that case, purusha enables perception of its own color in the mind just as purusha enables perception of the color of an object when it is modifying the mind. The process is similar to a person seeing his or her own image in a mirror. When an object is modifying the mind, purusha witnesses this modification and knows the object. In the same manner, when only purusha is modifying the mind, purusha witnesses this modification and knows itself. This is the theory of self-cognition of purusha by purusha.
3. Yoga Defined
Patanjali defines yoga using a four-word sutra – Yoga chitta-vritti nirodhah (Taimni 1961, p.6). Nirodhah means ‘control’, ‘restraint’, ‘inhibition’, or ‘cessation’. All the different meanings of nirodhah apply in this context. Yoga, thus, is the restraint, control, and finally cessation of chitta-vrittis, all modes or modifications of chitta.
Ordinarily, a variety of objects modify mental material one after the other. Fleeting mental imagery is the normal state of mind. Nirodhah begins with the retention of control of mental content to one object. When nirodhah is taken to mean restraint or control, yoga leads to objective perception with only one object being allowed to modify mental material for a period of time. The next stage of nirodhah is an objectless state. This stage involves complete inhibition or cessation of mental modifications. In this modality, yoga leads to self-cognition of purusha by purusha. Thus defined, yoga may mean perception of the reality of an object or the reality of self, the perceiver or purusha. Thus, nirodhah is seen as the material cause both of objective knowledge, and of self-realization.
Nirodhah is attained by a bi-fold effort involving abhyasa – persistent practice -- and vairagya – non-attachment. Abhyasa is the effort that one makes to be established on firm footing in the state of nirodhah (Ibid., p.22). Whatever effort one needs to make in accordance with the prescribed method of yoga is included in this word. One must continue to follow this practice regularly for a long time without interruption and with full faith and devotion to its efficacy for it to become a way of life. Vairagya is defined as the consciousness of perfect mastery of cravings and aversions for all visayas, this worldly or other worldly objects. Since all cravings and aversions are material based, self-identification with materiality must be placed in its proper perspective in order to attain vairagya. Desire must be mastered if wanton mental imagery is to be controlled or excluded as required for achieving nirodhah. The firmer this understanding is, the more control one desires. The highest control is achieved only when one has achieved self-realization.
Other than some steps, which are classified as external in nature and which are essential in the complete process of yoga, steps taken directly for the achievement of nirodha are internal in nature and are parts of the process called samyama.
5.1 Samyama – The Internal Components
How does one achieve nirodhah? Nirodha is restraint, control, and finally cessation of chitta-vrittis and it is achieved in a three-stage process. The three stages taken together are called samyama. The three stages are called dharna (concentration), dhyana (meditation) and samadhi. Samyama is a continuous process and passage from one stage to the other is not abrupt.
The state of the intellect resulting from this process is called pragya, and it is marked by the ability to filter out subjectivity while focusing on an object, which results in real objective knowledge from intellectual effort, or as an intuition or a revelation after the intellect has been completely exhausted. The mental material of a person who has achieved nirodha becomes like a faultless transparent diamond that truly reflects the real form of subtle and gross objects on which it focuses (Tirath 1974, p.268).
5.1.1 Dharna – Concentration
The first direct step in the achievement of nirodha is termed dharna. Dharna means confining the movement of the mind within a limited area. It refers to the first stage of concentrating the mind on one object. In this stage, the mind is mobile from object to object and a noticeable effort is required to confine it to the object to the exclusion of objective multiplicity.
5.1.2 Dhayana – Meditation
The next stage of concentration, dhayana or meditation, is defined as an uninterrupted flow of the mind towards the object of samyama. In this stage, too, the mind is moving noticeably, but the movement is focused on different aspects of the same object. Other objects are not considered at all, though the mind is conscious of itself, thereby preventing intimate knowledge of the object of samyama by asserting its self-consciousness between itself and the reality of the object.
5.1.3 Samadhi – Contemplation
The last stage in this process is called samadhi. Samadhi is defined as that stage when mind forgets about its own existence and is intimately joined with the object of samyama. Self-control of the mind is so well entrenched that moving around and into one object does not require any effort and is well under its control. The mind can then afford to lose its self-consciousness or lose itself in the object leading to pure objective knowledge.
Since samyama is the discipline resulting in objective knowledge, an object of samyama must be in the objective domain. The objective domain must be understood as the domain of manifest prakriti capable of being perceived or inferred. This disqualifies both purusha and un-manifest prakriti since they cannot be perceived or inferred.
Skill in the process of samyama must be gained in stages, beginning with objects that are low in subtlety and generality and proceeding towards objects of higher subtlety and generality.
Although all objects are rooted in ultimate reality and have the capacity of enabling a contact with it in deep samadhi, objects differ because of differences in what is colloquially called purusha-prakriti or spirit-matter combination. Material objects are colloquially called matter alone and are low in subtlety. Subtlety increases when spirit combines with matter. The subtler the object, the deeper are its roots and the harder would be the process of samyama, which aims to get at the root of an object.
A scale of generality is offered by a sutra of yoga philosophy that talks of the four stages of gunas – the particular, the universal, the differentiated, and the undifferentiated (Taimni 1961, p. 179). The particular stage is the least subtle and the undifferentiated stage is beyond subtlety. The subtler a stage, the higher the degree of complexity it offers in the process of samyama.
5.2.1 Particular
The particular stage of gunas results in the evolution of prakriti into sixteen terminal objects (Talwar 2001). These particulars include mana and five each of the gross elements, cognitive senses and active senses. They are the effects of their cause ahamkara and, in turn, cause no further product of evolution. They are the simplest products of evolution of prakriti (Tirath 1974, pp.328-41) and form a class of objects for beginners of samyama. Particulars may be described as objects that evolve from their respective immediate causes but do not lead to any further evolution.
The universal stage of gunas results in the evolution of prakriti into the five objects of senses – the five tanmatras and ahamkara (Talwar 2001). According to the yogic definition of universals, they evolve from their respective causes and, in turn, cause further evolution. By this definition, if an object is the effect of one and the material cause of others, it is said to be universal since others are, in a manner of speaking, included in it.
Although tanmatras and ahamkara are all universal by the given definition, they differ from each other in a significant way. Ahamkara is the cause of particular elements like two sets of senses and mana as well as universals like tanmatras, whereas tanmatras only cause particulars like the gross elements. Ahamkara is, therefore, much more general and complex than the objects of senses. Universals although not equally complex amongst themselves, would thus be the next on the scale of complexity.
The universal stage of gunas enables intelligibility by means of abstraction and classification of particulars into related classes. Individual objects are seen to have a separate and independent existence as members of their respective classes. Classification provides means of visualizing the underlying unity of objects within a class.
The degree of universality of ahamkara is different from that of the other universals. It enables intelligibility by even further abstraction and generalization by grouping related classes in turn into classes of their own and visualizing an underlying unity on even a larger horizon.
The differentiated stage of gunas results in the evolution of prakriti into buddhi. It is the direct result of prakriti and the cause of ahamkara. It is the subtlest of the products of evolution of prakriti and, consequently, the most complex object of samyama. Buddhi, being the first object of evolution, is in a class by itself because it has the capacity of being perceived as the one unifying factor of all objects.
The differentiated stage of gunas enables intelligibility by even further abstraction and generalization by grouping all classes into one class and visualizing the underlying unity of all diverse objects in the universe.
The undifferentiated stage of gunas is the un-evolved, un-manifest prakriti, where all the gunas being in the state of perfect equilibrium cannot be differentiated from one another. Being the subtlest un-manifest power of ultimate reality, it is not part of the objective domain and cannot be regarded as an object of samyama (Tirath 1974, p.274).
5.3 Stages of Samadhi – Contemplative States
The scope of samadhi is extremely wide. It is credited with the capacity to enable mastery of everything from the finest atom to the greatest infinity (Taimni 1961, p.94). In view of its wide scope, it is understandable that there are various stages of samadhi. Two successive outer stages are identified, each of which is further divided into various sub-stages:
5.3.1 Sabija Samadhi – Seeded Contemplative State
The term sabija is composed of a prefix sa implying the meaning of ‘with’ and the word bija meaning seed. The object of samyama supplies the seed in sabija samadhi. Sabija samadhi being the result of a particular object is dependent upon prakriti, since all objects are related with prakriti. The scope of this stage of samadhi is limited by the impressions produced by its seed, which prevents other impressions. This stage of samadhi is further divided into the following stages:
5.3.1.1 Sampragyata Samadhi – Intellect Based Contemplative State
The definition of this stage becomes clear on the analysis of the word sampragayata. Sam is a prefix imparting the meaning of ‘with’ to the rest of the word that means intellect or reasoning faculty. Thus, Sampragayata samadhi implies a state characterized by full enjoyment of one’s reasoning faculty, which is developed to the maximum as a result of the yogic effort.
This stage of samadhi uses the states of vitarka – discursive reasoning -- vichara - deliberation and reflection -- ananda -- joy and bliss -- and asmita – the I-sense depending upon the subtlety and complexity of the object of samyama, which may range from gross element related objects to those related with the first object of evolution of the un-manifest prakriti.
5.3.1.1.1 Vitarka Based Samadhi – Reason Based Contemplative State
The Vitarka state of chitta is related to relatively gross and simple objects of samyama. Objects may include such simple matters that are related with particulars - the terminal evolutes of prakriti from which there is no further evolution. The first stage of sampragyata samadhi based on vitarka is called savitarka Samadhi, implying a stage of dialectical reasoning using specific words as opposed to the second stage called nirvitarka Samadhi, meaning a stage where words are transcended.
An object is known by the words used to describe it. This knowledge is informative in nature and is referred to as the object’s descriptive knowledge. The real nature of the object, although related to its description, may be different since words are usually not enough to reflect the object accurately. Then, there is the ordinary knowledge of the object based on perception and inference. These three forms of knowledge of an object have an area of overlap and of exclusivity. In the savitarka stage, these three forms of knowledge are present in the mind in a mixed state and reasoning is used to distinguish between them by examining each individually and by moving from one to the other in a state of complete detachment from preconceived ideas and from the rest of the world. At the end of this stage, the mind has exhausted reasoning and completely separated out the three forms of knowledge. The subsequent stage is called nirvitarka samadhi and it is attained when the memory is clear and reasoning is completely exhausted. Real knowledge of the object, stripped of all subjectivity and confusion, is there to enjoy and grow while chitta is completely fused with the object.
5.3.1.1.2 Vichara Based Samadhi – Thought Based Contemplative State
The Vichara state of chitta is related to relatively subtle objects of samyama. Objects may range from complex matters related to particulars to those matters related to simpler universals like the five tanmatras – objects of senses. The first stage of sampragyata samadhi is based on vichara and is called savichara Samadhi, implying a stage with thought as opposed to the subsequent stage called nirvichara, implying a stage without thought or where thought is transcended.
When the object of samyama is subtle, reconciliation of the three forms of knowledge of the object is further complicated as a result of details related with specificity of time, place, environment, cause and effect. Objects are too subtle to be exhausted by discursive reasoning alone without the need of further thought and reflection. After due thought in the stage of samadhi, chitta makes a resolution between knowledge of the true nature of the object and the associated name, form, and other details related to time, place and environment. In the subsequent stage of nirvichara samadhi, the memory is clear and knowledge of the object is stripped of extraneous detail. Real knowledge of the object alone then shines though the mental material and the mind fuses with it completely, never to lose it again. This fusion of the chitta with the true and right knowledge of the object in the state of samadhi is what is referred to as contemplative perception as opposed to sense perception.
With the refinement of this stage begins the dawning of the spiritual light, which occurs when the chitta is enabled to free itself from the bounds of mere intellect which is always divisive in nature and forces us to see objects as separate and independent without any underlying unity. This occurs when we start generalization, abstraction and viewing the unity of objects in classes. Pragya then becomes ritambhara – right bearing. Ritambhara pragya is that kind of consciousness which is always unerring in the perception of truth and right. It must be noted that the word ritambhara has the connotation of truth, order and righteousness (Ibid., pp. 117-8).
Direct contemplative perception with ritambhara pragya in the state of nirvichara samadhi is the only way to obtain true knowledge of subtle objects. Sense perception is either too limited or unsuitable for such objects. Inference and testimonial knowledge acquired from books is too general and vague to obtain true knowledge. Nirvichara samadhi is the only alternative for true and right knowledge of subtle issues in view of the lack of suitability of ordinary means of knowledge in such cases.
The samskaras or the impressions resulting from direct perception during the ritambhara pragya of intellect are so strong that they help in detaching the mind from samskaras of ordinary bhoga (Tirath 1974, pp. 279-80). The greater the insight resulting from direct contemplative perception, the greater the true knowledge of objects of nature and the stronger the sense of detachment from ordinary desires. Even these impressions must be stopped to achieve complete nirodha.
5.3.1.1.3 Ananda Based Samadhi – Bliss Based Contemplative State
The Ananda state of chitta transcends reason and thought into intuition and revelation, and is related to yet subtler issues of samyama, which cannot be exhausted with mere reason and thought. The mental processes during this nirvichara stage belie description and can only be experienced. They are without doubt accompanied by a sense of bliss arising out of pure knowledge of the object of samyama.
5.3.1.1.4 Asmita Based Samadhi – I-sense Based Contemplative State
Asmita is the principle of individuality and stands for the I-sense rooted in the first object of evolution of prakriti, buddhi - intellect. For samadhi to extend to this stage, objects of samyama must have a consistent level to subtlety and complexity. This stage, too, falls in the nirvichara category. Understanding of the I-sense as purusha begins in this stage.
5.3.1.2 Asampragyata Samadhi – Contemplative State Transcending Intellect
With the application of the effort for sampragyata samadhi, the mental content drops. For a period, there is absolutely no content of mind, no reasoning, no reflection or deliberation, no joy, no bliss, and no I-sense, but only the seed of the object of samyama buried deep down in consciousness. This is an in-between stage that initially lasts only for a split second. It immediately follows a period of sampragayata samadhi and it is immediately followed by another period of sampragayata samadhi. Its time period increases with practice.
Thus, after vitarka based stages of sampragyata samadhi, there is a period of asampragyata stage. Another period of vitarka-based sampragyata may follow to consider another aspect of the object of samyama, and so on. A period of asampragyata intervenes as the yogi progresses from one stage of samadhi to the next. All content of mind in the preceding sampragayata stage vanishes. The only thing that remains is a samskara, a seed, or a subconscious impression of the preceding content. When with practice the duration of asampragyata samadhi increases, even this seed vanishes, leading to the onset of nirbija samadhi, which differs in scope from the stages already described.
5.3.2 Nirbija Samadhi – Contemplative State Transcending The Seed
The scope of the sabija stage of samadhi is limited by the impression produced by its seed. The scope of samadhi increases enormously out of limitations of prakriti by dropping the seed and transcending into nirbija samadhi. Only nirbija samadhi corresponds to complete nirodhah. Nirbija means without seed.
Dropping of the objective seed from consciousness is the beginning of self-cognition. Since this stage of samadhi follows from the previous sabija stage, it has the focus of consciousness of the sabija stage and the freedom from bondage to objects of nature. Instead, purusha itself becomes the seen in addition to being the seer. It is now that the yogi enters the stage that transcends objects that evolve from prakriti - from the realm of the immediate reality into that of the ultimate. It is in nirbija samadhi that the yogi has a vision of kaivalya, a unity of the cosmos, human and the divine.
5.4 Vision of Kaivalya and the Development of Viveka
The state of kaivalya is the final culmination of samadhi. The objective universe vanishes into its ultimate cause and the yogi perceives just one infinite reality, no finitude, no limitations and no differentiation whatsoever, just infinite reality. Kaivalya is the contemplative state of oneness of all, including and with the self.
Continued practice enables the contemplative experience of kaivalya, however briefly, and results in the elimination of avidya and the development of viveka, the true and enlightened perspective between purusha and prakriti. Which of the two is supreme? Is prakriti for fulfilling the purpose of purusha, or the other way around, or is prakriti for itself alone? Everywhere we look, they are found in association with each other. Ordinarily we are incapable of distinguishing one from the other. Klesas, the determinants of human condition, result from this inability to discriminate between the two and liberating knowledge of purusha results from an experience of the contemplative vision of kaivalya.
From the complete realization of the utterly distinct natures of purusha and prakriti, Viveka results in a state of perfection in freedom. With such realization, identification of the self with prakriti alone totally disappears.
According to Patanjali, there are eight component parts of yoga, namely yama or ethics, niyama or personal observances, asana or physical postures, pranayama or regulation of breath, pratyahara or abstraction, dharna or concentration, dyana or meditation, and samadhi. We have already discussed the last three, which are internal in nature. The other five are external. Yama and niyama; and asana and pranayama form two pairs of associated topics and, therefore, will be treated in pairs.
5.5.1 Yama and Niyama
Yama and niyama provide the moral and ethical foundation for the practice of yoga. While yama primarily concerns ethical behavior in society, niyama concerns rules of personal observances, primarily for developing the individual and the individual value system. The higher the achievement in the sphere of ethics and personal observances is, the less is the potential for emotional disturbances during the process of samyama and the easier the progress on the path of samadhi.
Patanajali lists greed, anger, and delusion as reasons for weaknesses leading to unethical behavior, whether committed directly, indirectly through others, or by others entirely but with one’s tacit approval. Whether the effect of such actions on the victim is mild, medium or intense, they cause endless anxiety, tension, and ignorance for him or her. It helps the yogic aspirant to alter negative thoughts and attitudes by continuous consideration of positive feelings of underlying unity shaped with right actions helping to achieve the yogic goal.
Brahmacharya is fundamental to both yama and niyama. The word brahmacharya is a compound word consisting of two words – Brahma, refers to ultimate reality and acharya means to ‘come close to’ or ‘to behave oneself’ (Monier-Williams 1981, p. 738). The word brahmacharya thus means a constant focus on Brahma, the ultimate reality as the only source of everything including value system and ethics. It has two other meanings as well that will be discussed later.
The underlying unity in ultimate reality determines the value system and code of ethics. The value system and behavior that separates and divides or makes for separation and division is not consistent with the underlying unity and thus not brahmacharya, and that which unites or makes for unity is brahmacharya. Such consistency in a value system is possible only when one is continuously focused on ultimate reality. Brahmacharya is the ultimate ethic that is simultaneously the yardstick and the source of all ethics.
5.5.1.1 Yama – Ethics
Each one of the five virtues that Patanjali includes in the category of yama are meant to be interpreted comprehensively as a class of associated virtues, and the object of the ethical code is to eliminate ordinary mental and emotional disturbances that hamper progress in the yogic direction. Patanjali specifies the following moral code that applies to all seekers, at all times, in all places and circumstances without any exception.
5.5.1.1 Brahmacharya - Focus on Ultimate Reality
The importance of one meaning of the word Brahmacharya as focus on ultimate reality in matters of value system and personal behavior has been discussed above. The second meaning of brahmacharya can be understood as knowledge acquisition from the association of the term with the first stage of life when a young student spends his entire youth in a guru’s hermitage acquiring the knowledge of the Vedas. The student lives an austere life at the hermitage devoid of any type of sensual enjoyment and immersed in knowledge acquisition. The young student is required to spend his education years as a celibate, which leads to abstinence from sex as the third meaning of the word. Mental upheavals, caused by sexual thoughts, to say nothing of sexual activity, are no secret to anyone. There is no human endeavor that leads to klesas like attachment, revulsion, and fear as indulgence in sex. Yoga involves abandonment of klesas. Klesas cannot be abandoned without abandoning indulgence in sex - a state of mind, which can only be achieved by constant focus on the underlying unity of all manifestation of ultimate reality.
Brahmacharya provides for the underlying unity of all life. Feelings of separation and duality underlie violence and must be controlled and discarded in order to practice non-violence. On the positive side, one should cultivate feelings of love and compassion to counter the development of violent emotions. Non-violence establishes one in the feeling of oneness and unity with other living beings, which respond with reciprocal feelings.
Downright lying and any variant of untruthfulness including suppression of truth, half-truth, or misrepresentation involve intent of deception and feelings of fear and duality that oppose ultimate unity and must be discarded, whether the expression of untruthfulness is directed towards oneself or others. Truthfulness establishes one with the honesty of purpose so that one’s actions result in the intended fruit.
Few people steal from a strictly legal point of view, but fewer yet are totally blameless for minor, direct and indirect, misappropriations. The scope of objects in this matter extends not only to goods, but services, unearned credit or privileges as well. Subtle dishonesty and greed must be rooted out as they are based on feelings of duality and envy, which clearly do not make for underlying unity. With the establishment in the mentality of non-stealing, one feels enormously rich, as one does not covet anything.
Acquisitiveness, feeding the fire of klesas as it does, has no limits, makes us greedier and greedier, and desirous of even more, far more than our real needs, which have a habit ofexpanding ever further. This human instinct of possessiveness causes many complications that can hinder progress on the yogic path. One must live a basic life with minimum needs even when surrounded with luxuries. One must remember that it is the mentality of acquisitiveness, possession, hoarding, and attachment rather than abundance of honestly earned objects that hinders progress. Non-acquisitiveness results in the knowledge and understanding of the reality of life through non-attachment.
5.5.1.2 Niyama – Personal Observances
Niyamas are rules for personal observances which shape the very personality of the yogic aspirant. The aspirant must live according to some principles that are important to achieve the yogic goal: cleanliness, contentment, tapas or austere lifestyle, svadhyaya or self-study, and isvara pranidhana or surrender to god.
The first of the rules is cleanliness, both bodily and mental. Bodily cleanliness is obvious for hygienic reasons to promote health and avoid disease. Tradition prescribes a number of yogic processes for bodily purity (Tirath 1974, pp. 396-424).
Mental purity is not so obvious but even more important because there is no chance of achieving the yogic goal without it. What is meant by cleanliness of the mind? The mind is unclean if it entertains feelings and thoughts inconsistent with the underlying unity of ultimate reality. The whole of the universe is a manifestation of ultimate reality and is, therefore, pure. Only the thought of separation or division is unclean. One should always try to visualize oneness, which is the truth and contrary to which any thought is impure and unclean.
Mental states incorporating ignorance, infatuation, delusion, pride, lust, anger, greed, the tendency to acquire and hoard, envy, hatred, fear, lack of discipline, sloth and laziness, falsehood, desire, violent and cruel feelings generally make for separation and division and should be considered unclean and avoided. Mental states incorporating love, compassion, honesty, contentment, understanding, charity and forgiveness, truthfulness, devotion, and discipline generally make for oneness and unity. These should be considered clean, and be inculcated and promoted. Such mental states result in cheerfulness, control over senses, self-knowledge, and focus.
Contentment of the highest order is necessary to keep the mind poised. Mental disturbances caused by desires to acquire or experience are incompatible with the yogic goal. Contentment leads to a feeling of sufficiency.
5.5.1.2.3 Tapas – Austere Lifestyle
Austere living is essential to develop a sense of detachment that is essential for yogic life. It is the discipline of using appropriate exercises such as fasting, consistent with character building and controlling the individual cravings and aversions. One must train oneself to bear with equanimity the dualities of hot and cold, hunger and thirst, pleasant and unpleasant, pleasure and pain, respect and disrespect, sleep and its lack. Tapas remove imperfections from sense organs and the body, sharpen them and bring them under control so that they serve the individual rather than the individual serving them.
5.5.1.2.4 Svadhyaya – Self-study
Svadhyaya is the study of one’s own feelings, emotions, and motivations. By being conscious of where one is coming from, one can learn to change one’s consciousness. Awareness and non-judgmental observation of the workings of one’s mind leads to an understanding of one’s motives, which, in turn, leads to self development and modification just like a scientist’s understanding of disease leads to its cure (De Mello 1992). Self-study has the capacity to lead a person to a communion with ultimate reality through communion with the reality immanent in him or herself.
In another sense, self-study also means the study and reflection of authoritative published material about the object of one’s yogic investigation. Such a study and reflection is obviously useful on a journey of discovery.
5.5.1.2.5 Isvara Pranidhana – Surrender to God
Total surrender to God is isvara pranidhana. The object of isvara pranidhana is to dissolve the feeling of asmita, the individuality principle that underlies the human condition. The yogic aspirant must live his life with an understanding that life and its gifts are nothing but gifts from God. The practice of isvara pranidhana begins with the surrender of the will to the oneness of God and oneness through God. It requires living a life of divine love, worship, prayer, devotion, and humility. It helps to attenuate cravings and aversions that determine the human condition.
5.5.2 Asana and Pranayama
The process of samyama involves uninterrupted and undisturbed contemplation sessions of long duration. The purpose of this pair of exercises is to avoid or minimize bodily disturbances to the process. Whereas the former seeks to stop disturbances resulting from bodily movements, the latter seeks to avoid or minimize disturbances resulting from the breathing process.
5.5.2.1 Asana – Physical Postures
Sight and taste are under one’s control. One should close one’s eyes and mouth to shut out visual disturbances and those associated with taste. Sound, smell and touch are not totally within one’s control, as one cannot shut the sense organs related to them. One should select a quiet place, out of reach of such distractions as insects and smells, and complete one’s bodily cleanliness processes so that there are no demands of any bodily functions while one is seated in samyama.
The posture in which one sits for samyama must be steady and totally comfortable. The latter requirement is to ensure that someone does not need to adjust it from time to time, and the latter to ensure that the yogic aspirant holds it for long periods without movement of any nature. Any movement required for adjustment or unsteadiness of the posture can break one’s focus and negate the outcome of a contemplation session.
The word asana is used in general for all yogic exercises that are considered preparatory for the final posture in which one sits to meditate and contemplate (Tirath 1974, pp. 431-2). Here, the word is used to connote the final meditation posture.
The preparatory yogic exercises (Ibid., pp. 438-50) are meant to promote strong body and good health, as a weak and unhealthy body is considered unsuitable for the rigors of yogic discipline, which requires long undisturbed meditation sessions considered essential to achieve the yogic goal. The final meditation asana is mastered by focusing on ananta, that which is unbounded by time and space, and by relaxation of physical effort. The word ananta describes a nature of ultimate reality. Focus on ananta here implies consideration of a deep and wide-ranging object such as ultimate reality. Meditation on such objects helps make one oblivious to the body, or any effort required to maintain the posture, or the feeling of opposites like heat or cold, joy or sorrow. One then sits completely relaxed and lost in the depths of the object of meditation. Self-study, knowledge, devotion, and keen curiosity to understand ideas of universal scope are important in this respect.
5.5.2.2 Pranayama – Regulation of Breath
The practice of asana makes one ready for pranayama, which is the regulation of breath with an aim to avoid or minimize movements associated with in breathing and out breathing. Various breathing exercises are described (Tirath 1974, pp. 451-63) which aim to extend the scope of the will of yogic aspirant to what is commonly an automatic bodily function of breathing. The purpose of all these exercises is to make the breath long and subtle, consistent with minimum movements. Ordinary breathing consists in breathing in, instantaneously pausing, breathing out, and pausing again. There are two types of breathing exercises: one focuses on lengthening the pauses and the other on lengthening the in breath and the out breath.
Pranayama has been described as having an additional effect of removing the covering of light. It sharpens the mind to focus on the object of contemplation and makes it fit for concentration. It probably works this way due to increased oxygen supply to the brain, the brain being the organ used by chitta as its instrument.
5.5.3 Pratyahara – Inward Orientation
Commonly, senses are directed outward. They must be directed inwards in preparation for the process of samyama. The practices of yama, niyama, asana, and pranayama are designed to remove the senses from their external objects and prepare them for inward orientation. Inward direction of the senses is called pratyahara. It helps the process of samyama by pulling the senses inwards to follow the lead of chitta instead of their leading the chitta towards external objects they constantly chase.
The process of samyama used in yoga affects the material principles of chitta causing them to mutate. These transformations result in new capabilities called siddhis, the attainments of chitta. Yoga philosophy claims that, uncommon as they may be, these effects are not supernatural achievements of the yogi, because they occur in the domain of nature as a result of the forces of change that a yogi willfully brings to bear on the material principles of chitta during samyama. The yogi should keep in mind at all times that these capabilities are not the goal, but merely results of natural processes leading to the goal which is enormously bigger than any side capability that may develop. It must be remembered at all times that it is easy to get carried away by the lure of these capabilities and lose sight of the yogic ideal of the vision of kaivalya, a unity of the cosmos, human and the divine.
Samadhi has been mentioned above as causing a mutative transformation of the chitta. The forces of change that samadhi brings to bear in causing the material principles of chitta to transform are described below.
The material principles of chitta are permanently transformed as a consequence of ekagrata, a condition of focus or one-pointed-ness that one has to achieve on one’s way to samadhi. The world of prakriti is kshanika. It changes every kshana, every moment. Kshana is the smallest yogic unit of time, which is incapable of further division. Continuity is an illusion in this ever-changing universe in which its current state is being replaced by a new and changed state every moment (Taimni 1961, pp. 439-43). The material principles of chitta are no exception to this rule. Ordinarily, thought waves of the mind change every kshana. One thought passes and the next arrives every moment. Ekagrata or focus or one-pointed-ness involves willfully replacing the outgoing content of mind by itself so that there is an illusion of continuity. This exercise of will has a transforming effect on the condition, nature and characteristics of the principles of chitta.
6.1.2 Samadhi
Transcending the ordinary condition of mind characterized by a succession of different thoughts and focusing on the true reality of the one and only object of samyama totally unadulterated by any subjectivity, motives and hidden agenda, is samadhi. The processes of achieving, maintaining and repeatedly practicing samadhi in the complete absence of all subjective attachments has permanent implications on the nature, characteristics and condition of the material principles of chitta.
Nirodha is the condition that intervenes momentarily between two thoughts. An incoming thought appears soon after the outgoing thought disappears. There is a brief thoughtless moment, which is called nirodha. With repeated practice of samadhi, the time period of nirodha increases and its flow becomes tranquil. The extended periods of nirodha leave an indelible effect on the material principles of chitta. It is only in an extended period of nirodha that a yogi achieves nirbija samadhi leading to a transcendental vision of kaivalya resulting in the ultimate transformation, a state of perfection beyond which no further spiritual development is conceivable.
6.2 Extent, Scope and Type of Transformation
The above forces of change alter the very nature of the material principles of chitta. Their condition and characteristics are transformed forever. The extent of the change depends upon the extent of the practice of the yogi, the effects being more pronounced in the earlier stages of practice and then increasing only asymptotically in the latter stages when a state of maximum potential is reached. Constituents of chitta, the material principles of buddhi, ahamkara, mana, cognitive senses, and active senses all get affected by these forces of change. The result of the transformation may be known by a development of extraordinary capabilities of being including intellect, memory, mind, senses and body.
The sub-stratum of all material principles, prakriti , being the perfect equilibrium of the three gunas, has the potential of all different natures and characteristics, which are merely expressions of the gunas. The type of effect of the yogic process then depends merely on the process itself, which differs in the object of samyama alone. The object of samyama determines the type of transformation of chitta that results from the yogic effort in sabija samadhi.
Patanajli hints at a number of processes of samyama using different objects for the yogic focus and their resultant powers. These powers logically flow from consequent knowledge and understanding, it being well known that knowledge imparts power to manipulate related phenomena. None of these powers should be considered miraculous, although being uncommon they may appear so. They, too, are governed by natural phenomena just like other phenomena in the world, though such phenomena classed as mystical have not yet been subjected to wide use and scrutiny.
This article has been an account of the yoga philosophy systematized by Patanjali, whose formulation is considered to be the most coherent and comprehensive handbook of the science of yogic contemplation. Yoga presents an integrated approach for objective as well as transcendental knowledge enabling the human being to overcome ordinary human condition, which is the source of unhappiness and suffering in life.
The human condition is overcome as a result of direct contemplative experience of kaivalya, oneness of all beings through ultimate reality. In this state, the only existence one perceives is that of ultimate reality. Even a momentary experience of this ideal changes one’s living through the development of an enlightened and practical perspective between the relative positions of prakriti, nature and purusha, spirit. One then lives in the world knowing firsthand that nature is for the purpose of the spirit, and not the other way around.
The accomplished yogi lives with enlightened discrimination between nature and spirit built on the foundation of the contemplative experience of kaivalya. Every being is in the yogi’s being and the yogi’s being is in every being. The experience of kaivalya is the attainment of ultimate reality enabling a unity of the self, the universe and beyond. All senses of such a person perceive unity, all behavior makes for unity, all active endeavors make for unity, all conscious as well as subconscious mental processes make for unity; such a person achieves unity with ultimate reality freeing the person from the human condition as well as from the suffering of human life (Shrimad Bhagvadgita, p. 217). Such is the state of kaivalya, the pinnacle of human achievement unleashing maximum of human potential and boundless love.
The author expresses his thanks and gratitude to the late Brahmrishi Vishvatma Bawra for his spiritual teaching and guidance over the years, and to Didi Chaitanya Jyoti for her continued guidance. The author also expresses a deep sense of admiration and gratitude for the innumerable number of men and women through centuries who considered the knowledge of yoga as a valuable heritage of humanity worthy of preservation from generation to generation.
Source: Spiritual4u.com
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